What is Bee Pollen?
Bee pollen is a hive product made up of flower pollen grains, nectar, and bee salivary secretions, collected by foraging honeybees and packed into small granules for transport back to the hive. Beekeepers gather it using specialized traps placed at hive entrances, harvesting it without damaging the colony. Often called "nature's multivitamin," bee pollen has been used medicinally for thousands of years, dating back to ancient Egypt where it was described as "a life-giving dust," and is mentioned in Greek, Chinese, and biblical texts. The German Federal Board of Health officially recognizes bee pollen as a medicine, and it remains widely used in traditional medicine systems across Europe, China, and the Middle East. Modern science has identified over 250 biologically active compounds in bee pollen, making it one of the most nutritionally dense natural foods on the planet.
Common Names: Bee pollen, Bee-collected pollen, Pollen granules, Nature's multivitamin, Pollen balls, Maja (in some cultures)
Primary Active Compounds:
Proteins and amino acids: Contains all essential amino acids in highly bioavailable form; protein content typically ranges from 10-40% by weight depending on floral source
Carbohydrates: 13-55% of dry weight, primarily fructose, glucose, and dietary fibers
Lipids and fatty acids: 1-13% including essential fatty acids like omega-3 and omega-6
Flavonoids: Quercetin, kaempferol, rutin, isorhamnetin, and myricetin
Phenolic acids: Caffeic acid, chlorogenic acid, ferulic acid, and p-coumaric acid
Vitamins: B-complex (B1, B2, B3, B5, B6, B12, biotin, folic acid), vitamin C, vitamin A (beta-carotene), vitamin D, vitamin E, vitamin K
Minerals: Calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, sodium, potassium, iron, copper, zinc, manganese, silicon, selenium, and chromium
Carotenoids: Beta-carotene, lutein, zeaxanthin, and lycopene
Enzymes: Over 100 different enzymes including amylase, catalase, and phosphatase
Antioxidants: Glutathione, superoxide dismutase precursors, and various polyphenols
Nucleic acids: RNA and DNA components
Key Nutritional Note: Bee pollen composition varies dramatically based on the floral source, geographic region, season of collection, soil conditions, and even the specific bee colony. Spring-collected pollen has a different amino acid profile than summer-collected pollen. Monofloral pollens (from a single plant species) differ significantly from polyfloral (mixed) pollens. This natural variability is why local bee pollen is often recommended, as it reflects the plants in your specific environment.
Primary Functions & Benefits
Nutritional Support:
Provides a complete spectrum of essential amino acids, including all those the human body cannot produce
Highly bioavailable protein source easily absorbed by the body
Rich source of B vitamins critical for energy production and nervous system function
Supplies trace minerals often missing from modern diets
Contains naturally occurring enzymes that may support digestion
Acts as a whole-food multivitamin with synergistic nutrient interactions
Antioxidant & Anti-Inflammatory Activity:
High concentrations of flavonoids and phenolic compounds protect cells from oxidative damage
Quercetin and other flavonoids reduce inflammatory markers in the body
May reduce chronic inflammation linked to heart disease, diabetes, and metabolic disorders
Animal studies show bee pollen can reduce swelling by up to 75% in inflammatory conditions
Ethanol extracts of bee pollen have demonstrated potent anti-inflammatory activity
Supports the body's natural antioxidant defense systems
Immune System Support:
May help regulate immune responses and increase resistance to infections
Demonstrates antibiotic-like activity against bacteria including staph and harmful pathogens
Antifungal properties shown in laboratory studies
May block histamine release, potentially reducing allergy symptoms (paradoxically, though it can also trigger allergies in sensitive individuals)
Supports overall immune resilience through nutrient density
Cardiovascular Health:
May lower total cholesterol and LDL (bad) cholesterol levels
Studies suggest benefit even in patients who don't respond well to statin medications
Unsaturated fatty acid content may help prevent harmful blood clots
Protects lipids from oxidation, a key step in atherosclerosis development
May support healthy blood pressure as part of an overall cardiovascular strategy
Improves blood flow and circulation
Energy & Athletic Performance:
Traditionally used as an energy tonic by athletes and laborers
B-vitamin content supports energy metabolism at the cellular level
May reduce fatigue and improve stamina
Provides easily digestible nutrients for sustained energy
Popular among endurance athletes for recovery support
Liver Health:
Animal studies show protective effects against liver toxicity
Demonstrated benefits in models of acetaminophen-induced liver damage
May support detoxification processes
Anti-inflammatory effects may benefit fatty liver conditions
Protects against harmful effects of food toxins and environmental exposures
Additional Benefits:
May help manage menopausal symptoms including hot flashes and mood changes
Traditionally used to support prostate health
May improve appetite in children with developmental issues or poor eating habits
Supports skin health and wound healing
May enhance mental clarity and reduce brain fog
Traditionally used to support fertility and reproductive health
May help relieve symptoms of mild depression when used alongside conventional treatment
Recommended Dosages
General Health Maintenance:
Starting dose: 1/4 to 1/2 teaspoon (about 1-2 grams) daily
Maintenance dose: 1 teaspoon (about 5 grams) daily
Therapeutic dose: Up to 7.5 grams daily (3-5 teaspoons) for adults seeking specific health benefits
By Form:
Granules (most common): 1 teaspoon (5 grams) daily, gradually increased from a smaller starting amount
Capsules: 500-1,000 mg, 1-3 times daily depending on product strength
Powder: 1/2 to 1 teaspoon mixed into food or beverages
Tablets: Follow manufacturer dosing, typically 500-1,000 mg, 1-2 times daily
Special Considerations by Use:
Athletic performance and energy: 1-2 teaspoons daily, often split into morning and pre-workout doses
Allergy support: Start with just a few granules, very gradually increase only if no reaction occurs
Cardiovascular support: 1 teaspoon daily as part of an overall heart-healthy regimen
Children over 2 years: Start with just a few granules, gradually increase to no more than 1/2 teaspoon daily, and only with healthcare provider approval
Children under 2: Not recommended
Critical Starting Protocol:
ALWAYS start small: Begin with just 2-3 granules to test for allergic reaction
Wait 24-48 hours: Monitor for any signs of allergic response
Increase gradually: Add a few more granules each day over 1-2 weeks
Reach full dose slowly: Work up to recommended dose over several weeks
This is non-negotiable: Bee pollen can cause severe allergic reactions including anaphylaxis, even in people without known allergies
Duration:
Generally safe for long-term daily use in non-allergic individuals
Most clinical studies range from a few weeks to several months
Cycling on and off (such as 3 months on, 1 month off) is sometimes recommended but not based on strong evidence
No established maximum duration for healthy adults
Timing & Administration
Best Time to Take:
Morning: Most popular timing; provides energy and B-vitamin support to start the day
Pre-workout: 30-60 minutes before exercise for energy and endurance support
With breakfast: Helps integrate it into a daily routine and supports absorption
Avoid late evening: The energizing B vitamins may interfere with sleep in sensitive individuals
Consistency matters: Daily intake provides better results than sporadic use
With or Without Food:
With food is preferred: Helps protect the delicate enzymes and vitamins from stomach acid, supports absorption of fat-soluble compounds, and reduces risk of digestive upset
Mixed into food: Most common and enjoyable approach; sprinkle onto yogurt, oatmeal, smoothies, salads, avocado toast, or breakfast bowls
Straight from the spoon: Acceptable but may be harder on sensitive stomachs
Avoid hot foods and beverages: Heat above 110°F (43°C) can destroy heat-sensitive enzymes, vitamins, and beneficial compounds; always add to cooled or room-temperature foods
Absorption Notes:
Bee pollen has a tough outer shell (exine) made of sporopollenin, which is one of the most chemically resistant biological materials known
Human digestive enzymes only partially break down the pollen wall, meaning some nutrients may not be fully absorbed
Chewing the granules thoroughly improves bioavailability
Soaking bee pollen in water, juice, or yogurt for 15-30 minutes before consuming may help soften the outer shell and improve nutrient release
Grinding or crushing the granules also enhances absorption
Fermented or "cracked-cell" bee pollen products claim improved bioavailability, though research is limited
Taking with vitamin C-containing foods may enhance absorption of certain minerals like iron
Onset of Effects:
Acute energy effects: May be noticed within hours to days for some individuals
Improved digestion and appetite: Within 1-2 weeks of consistent use
Skin and hair improvements: 4-8 weeks
Cardiovascular and cholesterol benefits: 2-3 months of daily use
Immune system support: Variable; benefits may build over weeks to months
Long-term protective effects: Build progressively with consistent use
Storage Tips:
Fresh bee pollen should be refrigerated or frozen to preserve nutrients
Dried bee pollen can be stored at room temperature in an airtight container away from light, heat, and moisture
Quality degrades when exposed to oxygen, light, and heat
Frozen bee pollen retains its nutritional value for up to 1 year
Refrigerated bee pollen typically lasts 6 months
Discard if you notice mold, off smells, or color changes
How Bee Pollen Works
Mechanisms of Action:
Whole-food nutrition delivery: Provides a synergistic complex of vitamins, minerals, amino acids, and phytonutrients that work together more effectively than isolated supplements
Antioxidant protection: Flavonoids like quercetin, kaempferol, and rutin neutralize free radicals throughout the body, protecting cells from oxidative damage
Anti-inflammatory pathway modulation: Bee pollen compounds inhibit inflammatory enzymes like COX-2 and reduce production of inflammatory cytokines including TNF-alpha and interleukins
Histamine regulation: Some bee pollen compounds can stabilize mast cells and reduce histamine release, potentially helping with seasonal allergies (though paradoxically, the pollen itself can also trigger allergies)
Lipid metabolism support: May influence cholesterol metabolism and reduce LDL oxidation, key factors in cardiovascular health
Enzyme support: Provides exogenous enzymes that may support digestive function and metabolic processes
Hepatoprotective effects: Antioxidants and bioactive compounds support liver detoxification pathways and protect liver cells from damage
Hormonal modulation: Plant phytochemicals may have mild hormonal effects, particularly relevant for menopausal symptom relief and reproductive health
Gut microbiome support: Provides prebiotic fibers and polyphenols that may support beneficial gut bacteria
Methylation support: B vitamins including folate and B12 support critical methylation reactions in the body
Synergistic Supplements
Take WITH Bee Pollen:
Royal jelly: Another bee product with complementary nutrients; often combined for enhanced energy and immune support
Propolis: Bee-derived antimicrobial compound that pairs well for immune support
Raw honey: Traditional companion that enhances flavor and provides additional enzymes
Vitamin C: Enhances iron absorption from bee pollen and provides additional antioxidant support
Probiotics: Support gut health, which may improve nutrient absorption from bee pollen
Omega-3 fish oil: Complementary anti-inflammatory and cardiovascular support
Quercetin: Bee pollen contains quercetin naturally; additional supplementation may enhance allergy support
Beneficial Combinations:
Bee superfood stack: Bee pollen + royal jelly + propolis + raw honey
Energy and performance: Bee pollen + B-complex + adaptogens like rhodiola or ashwagandha
Immune support: Bee pollen + propolis + vitamin C + zinc
Cardiovascular protocol: Bee pollen + omega-3 + CoQ10 + garlic extract
Allergy support: Bee pollen + quercetin + vitamin C + nettle leaf (only after confirming no allergic reaction)
Mens health blend: Bee pollen + saw palmetto + zinc + lycopene
Interactions & What NOT to Take
Use Caution With:
Blood thinners (Warfarin, Heparin, Aspirin): Bee pollen may increase bleeding risk; monitor closely if combining
Diabetes medications: Bee pollen can affect blood sugar levels; monitor glucose closely and adjust medications as needed under medical supervision
Immunosuppressants: Bee pollen's immune-stimulating effects may theoretically counteract these medications
Allergy medications: While bee pollen is sometimes used for allergies, it can also trigger them; use with caution if taking antihistamines
Hormone-sensitive medications: Some compounds in bee pollen may have mild estrogenic activity
Important Note on Quality:
Bee pollen is regulated as a food rather than a supplement in most countries (including the US), meaning quality, purity, and contents are not standardized
This lack of regulation means contamination with mold, bacteria, heavy metals, or pesticides is a real concern
Always purchase from reputable sources with quality testing
Avoid Combining With:
High doses of other histamine-releasing supplements if you have allergies
Other untested bee products if you've never had bee pollen before (start with one at a time)
Who Should Take Bee Pollen
Ideal Candidates:
Active individuals and athletes seeking natural energy and recovery support
People looking for a whole-food, nutrient-dense supplement
Those with B-vitamin deficiencies or low energy
Individuals seeking natural antioxidant support
People interested in traditional and holistic health practices
Those with mild seasonal allergies (with extreme caution and starting very small)
Individuals supporting cardiovascular health naturally
People wanting to support immune function
Those looking for plant-based protein supplementation
Individuals interested in apitherapy (bee product therapy)
Specific Populations:
Endurance athletes seeking natural performance enhancement
Adults with chronic low-grade inflammation
People with high cholesterol who want food-based support
Menopausal women seeking natural symptom relief
Older adults wanting comprehensive nutritional support
Beekeepers and those committed to supporting local bee populations
Who Should AVOID or Use Caution
Contraindications:
People with known bee or pollen allergies: ABSOLUTE contraindication; can cause severe allergic reactions including anaphylaxis
People with bee venom allergies: High risk of cross-reactivity
Children under 2 years old: Insufficient safety data and increased allergy risk
Pregnant women: Not enough safety research; some traditional sources warn it may stimulate uterine activity
Breastfeeding women: Insufficient safety data; potential for allergic reactions in infant
Use Caution:
People with asthma: Bee pollen can trigger respiratory reactions including wheezing and bronchospasm
Individuals with eczema or atopic conditions: Higher risk of allergic reactions
People with autoimmune conditions: Bee pollen's immune-stimulating effects could theoretically worsen autoimmune activity
Those with multiple food allergies: Higher overall allergy risk
People scheduled for surgery: Discontinue 2 weeks before surgery due to potential bleeding risk
Diabetics: Monitor blood sugar carefully; both natural sugars and potential blood sugar effects need consideration
People taking blood thinners: Discuss with healthcare provider before starting
Monitor Closely:
First-time users (always start with just a few granules)
Anyone with a family history of severe allergies
People with hay fever or seasonal allergic rhinitis
Those taking multiple medications
Individuals with sensitive digestive systems
Critical Safety Warning:
ALWAYS test for allergic reaction before taking a full dose
Have antihistamines or an EpiPen available if you have any allergy history
Seek emergency medical care immediately if you experience difficulty breathing, throat swelling, severe hives, dizziness, or rapid heartbeat after taking bee pollen
Allergic reactions can be sudden and severe even in people who have taken bee pollen before without issue
Benefits of Taking Bee Pollen
Evidence-Based Benefits:
Comprehensive nutritional profile including all essential amino acids in bioavailable form
Antioxidant activity demonstrated in multiple laboratory and animal studies
Anti-inflammatory effects shown in animal models and some human studies
Antimicrobial activity against various pathogens including some drug-resistant bacteria
Lipid-lowering effects observed in some clinical studies
Liver-protective effects in animal models of toxicity
Long history of traditional use across multiple cultures
Recognized as a medicine by the German Federal Board of Health
Provides plant-derived B vitamins including bioavailable folate
Quality of Life Improvements:
Increased energy and reduced fatigue
Improved exercise recovery and athletic performance
Better skin appearance and complexion
Enhanced sense of overall vitality and wellness
Support for healthy aging through antioxidant protection
Natural alternative to synthetic multivitamins
Connection to traditional and natural health practices
Support for local beekeepers and bee populations when sourced locally
Potential Negatives & Side Effects
Common Side Effects:
Digestive upset including nausea, bloating, or diarrhea (especially when starting)
Headache (uncommon)
Skin reactions including itching, rash, or hives
Increased sensitivity to allergens
Serious Potential Reactions:
Severe allergic reactions including anaphylaxis: This is the MOST significant concern; can occur even in people without known bee or pollen allergies
Asthma attacks: Especially in those with existing respiratory conditions
Throat swelling and difficulty breathing: Medical emergency
Cardiovascular reactions: Rapid heartbeat, drop in blood pressure
Loss of consciousness: In severe allergic reactions
Quality & Contamination Issues:
Bee pollen quality varies dramatically between sources, seasons, and floral origins
Contamination with mold or fungi is a documented concern, especially in improperly dried or stored products
Heavy metal contamination from environmental pollution can occur
Pesticide residues are a concern, particularly from non-organic sources or areas with heavy agricultural chemical use
Bacterial contamination including from pathogens like Clostridium has been documented
Lack of regulation means label claims may not match actual contents
Storage conditions significantly affect nutrient retention
Adverse Events to Watch For:
Any signs of allergic reaction (itching, swelling, hives, difficulty breathing) require immediate discontinuation
Worsening of existing allergies or asthma
Unusual fatigue or symptoms after starting bee pollen
Digestive issues that persist beyond the initial adjustment period
Deficiency Symptoms
Note: Bee pollen is not an essential nutrient, so there are no true "deficiency symptoms." However, the conditions it supports may indicate where it could be beneficial:
Conditions That May Improve With Bee Pollen:
Low energy and chronic fatigue from nutrient gaps
Poor exercise recovery and reduced stamina
B-vitamin insufficiencies affecting energy metabolism
Mild nutritional deficiencies from poor diet
Compromised immune function and frequent minor illnesses
Chronic low-grade inflammation
Poor appetite or difficulty maintaining weight
Slow wound healing
Dull skin or hair
Mild depressive symptoms or low mood
Signs You Might Benefit:
Restrictive eating patterns missing whole-food nutrition
High physical activity demands not met by current diet
Looking for natural alternatives to synthetic multivitamins
Interest in apitherapy and natural health traditions
Need for highly bioavailable plant-based protein
Desire for broad-spectrum antioxidant support
Recovery from illness or surgery (with healthcare provider approval)
Active lifestyle requiring sustained energy
Toxicity Symptoms
Bee pollen has a relatively good safety profile in non-allergic individuals when consumed at recommended doses, but unique risks exist:
Acute Toxicity (Very Rare from Pure, Quality Product):
True chemical toxicity from bee pollen itself is extremely uncommon
Most adverse events are allergic in nature, not toxic
Excessive doses may cause significant digestive upset
Contamination is a more realistic concern than toxicity from bee pollen itself
Contamination-Related Risks:
Mold/fungal toxins: Aflatoxins and other mycotoxins from improperly dried pollen can cause liver damage with long-term exposure
Heavy metals: Lead, cadmium, and other toxic metals can accumulate from polluted environments
Pesticides: Neonicotinoids and other agricultural chemicals can contaminate pollen
Bacterial contamination: Including potentially harmful bacteria from improper handling
Allergic Reaction Severity:
Mild: Itching, mild rash, slight digestive upset
Moderate: Hives, significant swelling, wheezing, more pronounced GI symptoms
Severe: Anaphylaxis with throat swelling, difficulty breathing, drop in blood pressure, loss of consciousness; this is a medical emergency requiring immediate treatment
Safety in Research:
No established acute toxic dose for pure, uncontaminated bee pollen in non-allergic individuals
Long-term safety studies are limited
Most documented adverse events involve allergic reactions, not toxicity
Quality control remains the biggest safety challenge
Documented Case Reports:
Multiple case reports of severe allergic reactions, including anaphylaxis, in bee pollen users
Some cases of acute hepatitis attributed to bee pollen consumption
Reports of acute renal failure in rare cases
Photosensitivity reactions in some individuals
Special Considerations
Form Selection:
Fresh granules (refrigerated): Most nutrient-dense form; preserves enzymes and heat-sensitive vitamins; requires refrigeration; slightly chewy texture
Dried granules: Most common commercial form; longer shelf life; some nutrient loss compared to fresh; convenient for daily use
Frozen granules: Excellent nutrient preservation; long storage life; thaw small portions as needed
Powder: Easy to mix into smoothies and foods; faster absorption; potentially more uniform dosing
Capsules/tablets: Most convenient; tasteless; easy travel option; may have additives or fillers
Cracked-cell or fermented pollen: Claims of improved bioavailability; less research available
Local raw bee pollen: Often recommended for those interested in potential allergy benefits and supporting local beekeepers
Quality Indicators:
Sourced from reputable beekeepers in clean, low-pollution environments
Properly dried with documented moisture content (should be below 6-10% depending on regulations)
Free from molds, fungal contamination, and bacterial pathogens
Heavy metal and pesticide testing performed by third-party labs
Vibrant, varied colors (multiple colors often indicate diverse floral sources, which is generally desirable)
No off odors or signs of fermentation
Clear labeling of source location and floral type when possible
Stored in airtight, opaque containers
Organic certification when available
Transparency about harvesting and processing methods
Local vs Imported:
Local bee pollen is often recommended because it reflects the plant species in your environment, potentially helpful for seasonal allergy support, supports local beekeepers and ecosystems, and may be fresher with shorter supply chains
Imported bee pollen may offer specific monofloral varieties not available locally, may be cheaper, but raises concerns about freshness, quality control, and environmental conditions in source countries
Seasonal Variations:
Spring pollen tends to be higher in protein
Summer pollen often has different amino acid profiles
Fall pollen may be richer in certain antioxidants
Variety in your bee pollen sources may provide more complete nutrition over time
Sustainability and Ethics:
Supporting beekeepers who follow ethical harvesting practices is important
Bees should always have enough pollen and honey reserves for their own needs
Sustainable harvesting does not harm bee colonies
Choosing pollen from beekeepers committed to bee welfare supports vital pollinator populations
Bees are essential to our food supply and ecosystems; consumer choices matter
Research Status & Evidence Quality
Strong Evidence For:
Comprehensive nutritional profile including proteins, vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants
Antioxidant activity in laboratory studies
Anti-inflammatory effects in animal models
Allergic reaction risk in sensitive individuals
Antimicrobial properties in laboratory settings
Moderate Evidence For:
Lipid-lowering and cardiovascular effects in some clinical studies
Liver-protective effects in animal models
Wound healing support
General nutritional supplementation benefits
Traditional uses for energy and vitality
Preliminary/Limited Evidence For:
Allergy desensitization (some traditional use, limited modern research)
Athletic performance enhancement
Menopausal symptom relief
Cancer prevention or treatment (very preliminary)
Mental health and depression support
Prostate health benefits
Fertility and reproductive support
Skin health and anti-aging effects
Research Limitations:
Most studies are conducted in laboratories or animals, not humans
Human clinical trials are limited and often small in size
High variability in bee pollen composition makes standardization difficult
Quality control issues complicate research interpretation
Lack of regulation means commercial products may differ significantly from research samples
Long-term safety data in humans is limited
Bee pollen is studied as a food rather than a pharmaceutical, leading to less rigorous research funding
More large-scale, well-controlled human studies are needed across all proposed benefits
Summary & Key Takeaways
Bee pollen is one of nature's most nutritionally complex foods, containing over 250 biologically active compounds including all essential amino acids, B vitamins, minerals, antioxidants, and beneficial fatty acids. It has been used medicinally for thousands of years across many cultures and is sometimes called "nature's multivitamin" for good reason. While modern scientific research has confirmed its impressive nutritional profile and demonstrated antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial properties in laboratory and animal studies, large-scale human clinical research remains limited.
Bottom Line: Bee pollen offers a unique whole-food approach to nutritional supplementation, providing a synergistic blend of vitamins, minerals, proteins, and phytonutrients that work together more effectively than isolated supplements. For most healthy, non-allergic adults, it can be a valuable addition to a balanced diet, particularly for those seeking natural energy support, athletic recovery, cardiovascular health, and broad-spectrum antioxidant protection. However, the lack of regulation and standardization means quality varies dramatically between products, and sourcing from reputable beekeepers is essential.
Key Safety Points: The most significant concern with bee pollen is the risk of severe allergic reactions, including potentially life-threatening anaphylaxis. ANYONE trying bee pollen for the first time must start with just a few granules and monitor carefully for any allergic response over 24-48 hours before increasing the dose. People with known bee, pollen, or insect allergies should NEVER take bee pollen. It should also be avoided by pregnant or breastfeeding women, children under 2, and people with asthma or autoimmune conditions without medical supervision. Those on blood thinners, diabetes medications, or with scheduled surgeries should consult their healthcare provider before use. Quality matters tremendously; choose properly tested products from clean, low-pollution sources.
Special Note: Bee pollen represents one of the most fascinating intersections of nutrition, traditional medicine, and ecology. Each granule contains the concentrated essence of countless flowers, gathered by bees that play an essential role in our food system. Choosing local, ethically sourced bee pollen supports both personal health and the bee populations our planet depends on. While the science is still catching up to traditional wisdom, the impressive nutritional profile of bee pollen makes it a worthwhile consideration for anyone seeking a whole-food approach to supplementation. Remember that bee pollen should complement, not replace, a balanced diet and proven medical treatments. When in doubt, consult with a healthcare provider, especially if you have any existing health conditions or are taking medications.